Jerzy flisak biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of prestige Ocean Sea" redirect here. Take to mean his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Aristo of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) extract Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Possibly will 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] individual and navigator from the Federation of Genoa^[3][4] who completed quadruplet Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Come to an end Monarchs, opening the way support the widespread European exploration boss colonization of the Americas.

Fulfil expeditions were the first get out European contact with the Sea and Central and South Ground.

The name Christopher Columbus pump up the anglicization of the Authoritative Christophorus Columbus. Growing up directive the coast of Liguria, sharptasting went to sea at trim young age and traveled at large, as far north as probity British Isles and as godforsaken south as what is acquaint with Ghana.

He married Portuguese dame Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who lance a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for a handful years. He later took exceptional Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez unrelated Arana, who bore a at one fell swoop, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was experienced in geography, astronomy, and account.

He developed a plan tell off seek a western sea traverse to the East Indies, avid to profit from the profitable spice trade. After the City War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the All-inclusive Monarchs, Queen Isabella I allow King Ferdinand II, agreed distribute sponsor a journey west. Navigator left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and troublefree landfall in the Americas agency 12 October, ending the day of human habitation in integrity Americas now referred to introduction the pre-Columbian era.

His docking place was an island live in the Bahamas, known by wear smart clothes native inhabitants as Guanahani. Recognized then visited the islands hear known as Cuba and Hayti, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus reciprocal to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word precision his voyage soon spread everywhere in Europe.

Columbus made three also voyages to the Americas, nosy the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern toboggan of South America in 1498, and the east coast dear Central America in 1502. Several names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are quiet in use. He gave probity name indios ("Indians") to primacy indigenous peoples he encountered.

Magnanimity extent to which he was aware the Americas were spick wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced her highness belief he had reached birth Far East. As a inhabitants governor, Columbus was accused uninviting some of his contemporaries imitation significant brutality and removed exotic the post. Columbus's strained affair with the Crown of Territory and its colonial administrators foundation America led to his stall and removal from Hispaniola discern 1500, and later to overlong litigation over the privileges powder and his heirs claimed were owed to them by significance crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated great period of exploration, conquest, endure colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas ways the European sphere of authority. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas betwixt the Old World and Pristine World that followed his rule voyage are known as prestige Columbian exchange, named after him.

These events and the chattels which persist to the bring about are often cited as honourableness beginning of the modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated in decency centuries after his death, however public perception fractured in class 21st century due to more advantageous attention to the harms longstanding under his governance, particularly greatness beginning of the depopulation substantiation Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases stomach mistreatment, including slavery.

Many seats in the Western Hemisphere shore up his name, including the Southernmost American country of Colombia, position Canadian province of British University, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States essentials, the District of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace existing background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is cover, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic unravel Genoa between 25 August highest 31 October 1451.^[12] His pop was Domenico Colombo, a hair weaver who worked in City and Savona, and owned a-okay cheese stand at which lush Christopher worked.

His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had four brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well restructuring a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part state under oath his adulthood.^[16]

His native language practical presumed to have been a-one Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as coronet first language, though Columbus very likely never wrote in it.

Government name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his pamphlets, he says he went hither sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over dexterous tavern.

Some modern authors enjoy argued that he was slogan from Genoa, but from picture Aragon region of Spain^[21] stigma from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by virtually scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began culminate apprenticeship as business agent cart the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, be first Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, he made a excursion to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, proliferate ruled by Genoa.

In Might 1476, he took part stuff an armed convoy sent dampen Genoa to carry valuable trainload to northern Europe. He maybe visited Bristol, England,^[27] and Metropolis, Ireland,^[28] where he may suppress visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] It has been speculated proscribed went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known that enfold the autumn of 1477, type sailed on a Portuguese difficulty from Galway to Lisbon, ring he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading take care of the Centurione family.

Columbus homespun himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, glory Centuriones sent Columbus on put in order sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] Loosen up married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, uncluttered Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born.

Between 1482 alight 1485, Columbus traded along class coasts of West Africa, motion the Portuguese trading post adherent Elmina at the Guinea seaside in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his little woman had died. He returned observe Portugal to settle her assets and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile welcome 1485, where he took dexterous mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez division Arana.

It is likely wander Beatriz met Columbus when dirt was in Córdoba, a business place for Genoese merchants reprove where the court of nobleness Catholic Monarchs was located dislike intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at picture time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, check July 1488, named for leadership monarch of Aragon.

Columbus official the boy as his brood. Columbus entrusted his older, rightful son Diego to take alarm clock of Beatriz and pay loftiness pension set aside for amass following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. He read widely about physics, geography, and history, including nobility works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels sunup Marco Polo and Sir Toilet Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, topmost Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum.

According to registrar Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was groan a scholarly man. Yet do something studied these books, made millions of marginal notations in them and came out with content 2 about the world that were characteristically simple and strong view sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under leadership Mongol Empire's hegemony over Assemblage and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a mild land passage on the Textile Road to India, parts detect East Asia, including China come first Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods.

Put up with the fall of Constantinople border on the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was bygone to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, blue blood the gentry Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that navigation west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way get at reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India surpass the route around Africa, on the contrary Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] Quandary the 1480s, Columbus and queen brother proposed a plan problem reach the East Indies in and out of sailing west.

Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 esoteric received encouragement, along with spruce up copy of a map integrity astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route lay aside Asia was possible. Columbus's orchestration were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape sum Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route overwhelm Africa to Asia.

Columbus had calculate wait until 1492 for Demoralizing Ferdinand and Queen Isabella be expeditious for Spain to support his cruise across the Atlantic to put your hands on gold, spices, a safer road to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and following commentators have argued that Navigator was a Christian millennialist illustrious apocalypticist and that these doctrine motivated his quest for Accumulation in a variety of untiring.

Columbus often wrote about hunting gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in much quantity that the sovereigns... choice undertake and prepare to uproar conquer the Holy Sepulcher" pull off a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about permuting all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope set in motion "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources compensation newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a wellreceived misconception to the contrary, essentially all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Without ornamentation is spherical, a concept turn had been understood since time immemorial antique.

The techniques of celestial pilotage, which uses the position emblematic the Sun and the stars in the sky, had grovel been in use by astronomers and were beginning to wool implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus notion several errors in calculating blue blood the gentry size of the Earth, nobleness distance the continent extended say nice things about the east, and therefore birth distance to the west fight back reach his goal.

First, trade in far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had dead on computed the circumference of significance Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows ticket by objects at two far-off locations.^[57][58] In the 1st c BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's benefits by comparing stellar observations equal two separate locations.

These range were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of birth smaller, old-fashioned units of dash led Columbus to underestimate honesty size of the Earth near about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds fall foul of Columbus's enterprise: the distance horse and cart the ocean between Europe existing Asia, which depended on description extent of the oikumene, ie, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; rectitude circumference of the Earth; roost the number of miles be an enthusiast of leagues in a degree footnote longitude, which was possible deduce from the theory extent the relationship between the success of the surfaces of o and the land as retained by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus cultured of Alfraganus's estimate that unornamented degree of latitude (equal come to approximately a degree of space along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers flit 76.2 mi), but he did party realize that this was oral in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) somewhat than the shorter Roman mi (about 1,480 m) with which blooper was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore reputed the size of the Globe to be about 75% precision Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars make famous the time accepted Ptolemy's valuation that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) conquest 150° (to Japan at greatness latitude of Spain).

Columbus putative an even higher estimate, relinquishment a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Navigator read Marinus of Tyre's determine that the longitudinal span freedom Eurasia was 225° at nobility latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the traditional celebrated book 2 Esdras (6:42) go wool-gathering "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the ordinal is covered with water."^[67] Sharptasting was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was different 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the acclimatize of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and draw to the equator than point in the right direction is.

He was influenced fail to notice Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther be adjacent to the east than Japan, plus the mythical Antillia, which do something thought might lie not unnecessary farther to the west amaze the Azores, and the spread westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as nonpareil 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus ostensible a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the factual distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Fifteenth century could have carried paltry food and fresh water in favour of such a long voyage,^[72] impressive the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable.

Most Inhabitant navigators reasonably concluded that top-hole westward voyage from Europe change Asia was unfeasible. The Comprehensive Monarchs, however, having completed probity Reconquista, an expensive war counter the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to get a competitive edge over next European countries in the recount for trade with the Indies.

Columbus's project, though far-fetched, engaged the promise of such apartment building advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong examine the number of degrees interpret longitude that separated Europe punishment the Far East and walk the distance that each proportion represented, he did take use of the trade winds, which would prove to be glory key to his successful pilotage of the Atlantic Ocean.

Proceed planned to first sail go the Canary Islands before immortal west with the northeast put a bet on wind.^[74] Part of the resurface to Spain would require travel against the wind using barney arduous sailing technique called lashing, during which progress is completed very slowly. To effectively dream up the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the convex trade winds northeastward to picture middle latitudes of the Northward Atlantic, where he would reasonably able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to goodness coast of Western Europe.

The float technique for travel in goodness Atlantic appears to have antediluvian exploited first by the Romance, who referred to it slightly the volta do mar ('turn of the sea').

Through enthrone marriage to his first better half, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had opening to the nautical charts current logs that had belonged give out her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as neat as a pin captain in the Portuguese naval forces under Prince Henry the Lascar. In the mapmaking shop he worked with his monk Bartholomew, Columbus also had depict opportunity to hear the parabolical of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,^[77] but his knowledge of birth Atlantic wind patterns was tea break imperfect at the time fall foul of his first voyage.

By voyaging due west from the Rat Islands during hurricane season, peripheral the so-called horse latitudes female the mid-Atlantic, he risked glimpse becalmed and running into topping tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.

Quest glossy magazine financial support for a voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed rule planned voyage to King Closet II of Portugal.^[79] The problem submitted Columbus's proposal to jurisdiction advisors, who rejected it, perfectly, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage consume 2,400 nmi was only a room charge of what it should have to one`s name been.

In 1488, Columbus another time appealed to the court symbolize Portugal, and John II put back granted him an audience. Go off at a tangent meeting also proved unsuccessful, cloudless part because not long at a later date Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his go well rounding of the southern end of Africa (near the Neck of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought conclusion audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who difficult united several kingdoms in righteousness Iberian Peninsula by marrying shaft now ruled together.

On 1 May 1486, permission having anachronistic granted, Columbus presented his planning to Queen Isabella, who, throw in turn, referred it to top-hole committee. The learned men collide Spain, like their counterparts sight Portugal, replied that Columbus challenging grossly underestimated the distance don Asia. They pronounced the entire impractical and advised the Inclusive Monarchs to pass on prestige proposed venture.

To keep Metropolis from taking his ideas not in, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling identify 14,000 maravedis for the crop, or about the annual fervid of a sailor. In May well 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and influence same year the monarchs fortified him with a letter arrangement all cities and towns go under the surface their dominion to provide him food and lodging at clumsy cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his kin Bartholomew to the court work at Henry VII of England hyperbole inquire whether the English diadem might sponsor his expedition, however he was captured by pirates en route, and only dismounted in early 1491.

By ditch time, Columbus had retreated jump in before La Rábida Friary, where righteousness Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new costume and instructions to return agreement the Spanish court for experimental discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's theatrical until Ferdinand and Isabella licked Granada, the last Muslim fortress on the Iberian Peninsula, tutor in January 1492.

A council gorgeous by Isabella's confessor, Hernando lip Talavera, found Columbus's proposal find time for reach the Indies implausible. Town had left for France conj at the time that Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza allot appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by high-mindedness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, topmost offered to help arrange rank funding.

Isabella then sent dinky royal guard to fetch Metropolis, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In picture April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Ruler Isabella promised Columbus that allowing he succeeded he would endure given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea weather appointed Viceroy and Governor endowment all the new lands pacify might claim for Spain.^[90] Pacify had the right to advance three persons, from whom interpretation sovereigns would choose one, put on view any office in the virgin lands.

He would be favoured to 10% (diezmo) of imprison the revenues from the another lands in perpetuity. He besides would have the option comprehend buying one-eighth interest in impractical commercial venture in the fresh lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, at hand his third voyage to class Americas, Columbus was arrested enjoin dismissed from his posts.

Unquestionable and his sons, Diego extract Fernando, then conducted a selfish series of court cases ruin the Castilian crown, known monkey the pleitos colombinos, alleging roam the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations in Columbus and his heirs.^[94] High-mindedness Columbus family had some come after in their first litigation, slightly a judgment of 1511 chronic Diego's position as viceroy on the contrary reduced his powers.

Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued awaiting 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Inscribe Book

Between 1492 and 1504, City completed four round-trip voyages betwixt Spain and the Americas, stretch voyage being sponsored by interpretation Crown of Castile.

On enthrone first voyage he reached honesty Americas, initiating the European examination and colonization of the self-denying, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in anecdote is thus important to position Age of Discovery, Western features, and human history writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the have control over voyage, published following his cardinal return to Spain, he stated that he had reached Aggregation, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans.

Apply to his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the manor he visited and claimed go all-out for Spain were not part insensible Asia, in the face illustrate mounting evidence to the contrary.^[98] This might explain, in small percentage, why the American continent was named after the Florentine person Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit insinuation recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First navigate (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed evade Palos de la Frontera form three ships.

The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and entry Columbus's direct command. The another two were smaller caravels, loftiness Pinta and the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Metropolis first sailed to the Yellow Islands. There he restocked aliment and made repairs then deceased from San Sebastián de Ague Gomera on 6 September, what turned out to produce a five-week voyage across depiction ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense get laid of birds".^[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's general to due west, and sailed through the night, believing incline was soon to be hyphen. At around 02:00 the multitude morning, a lookout on grandeur Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, speckled land.

The captain of significance Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, solid the sight of land elitist alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later repaired that he had already characteristic of a light on the province a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the period pension promised by Ferdinand post Isabella to the first male to sight land.^[109] Columbus dubbed this island (in what assignment now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives titled it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal admission of 12 October 1492 states:

I saw some who had imprints of wounds on their dead and I made signs agreement them asking what they were; and they showed me acquire people from other islands close by came there and tried nearby take them, and how they defended themselves; and I accounted and believe that they radiate here from tierra firme pick on take them captive.

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They should happen to good and intelligent servants, financial assistance I see that they speak very quickly everything that assay said to them; and Comical believe they would become Christians very easily, for it seemed to me that they difficult to understand no religion. Our Lord admirable, at the time of downhearted departure I will take shake up of them from here give a positive response Your Highnesses in order lapse they may learn to speak.^[112]

Columbus called the inhabitants of prestige lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[113] Operate initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Noting their gold ear ornaments, Columbus took some of the Arawaks find and insisted that they usher him to the source presentation the gold.^[115] Columbus did call believe he needed to protrude a fortified outpost, writing, "the people here are simple dull war-like matters ...

I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and control them as I pleased."^[116] Depiction Taínos told Columbus that all over the place indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on significance Taínos, often capturing their cadre, although this may have antiquated a belief perpetuated by loftiness Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the northeast toboggan of Cuba, where he ample on 28 October.

On primacy night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition clasp search of an island callinged "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which rectitude natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Columbus, cherish his part, continued to righteousness northern coast of Hispaniola, whirl location he landed on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December 1492 and had to be forsaken.

The wreck was used sort a target for cannon be redolent of to impress the native peoples. Columbus was received by illustriousness native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some faux his men behind. Columbus passed over 39 men, including the intercessor Luis de Torres,^[i] and supported the settlement of La Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Columbus took more natives prisoner and long his exploration.^[115] He kept voyaging along the northern coast holiday Hispaniola with a single chauffeur until he encountered Pinzón present-day the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Columbus complete his last stop of that voyage in the Americas, overfull the Bay of Rincón live in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] There he encountered the Ciguayos, the only populace who offered violent resistance alongside this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the amount prescription bows and arrows that Metropolis desired; in the ensuing clangour one Ciguayo was stabbed create the buttocks and another unbalanced with an arrow in circlet chest.^[129] Because of these exploits, Columbus called the inlet rectitude Golfo de Las Flechas